Hero of the Buddhist renaissance in India

DR. B. R. AMBEDKAR:

Hero of the Buddhist renaissance in India

Ven. Vinagarakkhita Thera

Buddhist renaissance: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was not born Buddhist but his mind was inclined towards Buddhism from his very childhood. His first initiation into Buddhism happened in Bombay when a meeting was held to felicitate him on his success in the Matriculation.

In this meeting a booklet titled 'Life of Buddha' was presented to him by Krishna Arjun Keluskar, a well-known Marati author and social reformer. This generated much interest to read and know more on Buddhism and thus finally developed faith in Buddha Dhamma and Sangha.

His faith can be seen from his vivid descriptions to his collegues at Buddhist excavations site near Mahad on how the disciples of the Buddha in His days remained celibates, embraced simplicity and served society selflessly.

He was so much inspired by these ancient remains that, as mark of respect and reverence, he asked his colleagues not to occupy any of the seats as they might have been the seats of the Buddhist monks. For the first time in 1935 Dr. B. R. Ambedkar made known his intention of leaving Hinduism in a conference held at Yeola.

The Sikhs, Muslims and Christians promptly tried to induce him to embrace their religion by offering enormous funds and other amenities not only for himself but also for his followers. But it was his deep confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha that no other religion could win him at all. Once he said 'The first point, which marks off the Buddha from the rest, is his self-abnegation.

Jesus insists that he is the Son of God. Mohammed went a step further. He claimed that he was the messenger of God on earth and insisted that he was the last messenger. Krishna went a step beyond both Jesus and Mohammed. He claimed that he was "Parameshwar"- the God of Gods.

The Buddha never arrogated to himself any such status. He was born a son of man and was content to remain a common man and preached his dhamma as a common man. Jesus, Mohammed and Krishna claimed for themselves a role of Mokshadata. The Buddha was satisfied with playing the role of Margadata.

Contribution to Buddhism In 1948 Dr. Ambedkar in order to educate his followers got reprinted. Lakshmi Narasu's book 'The Essence of Buddhism' and recommended it for the study of the would-be Buddhists. He himself authored a book titled 'The Buddha and His Dhamma' which came out as a posthumous publication in 1957.

In May 1950 Dr. Ambedkar visited Sri Lanka to participate in the first conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists and observed the Buddhist ceremonies and rituals, saw how the bhikkhus preached and found out how the Sri Lankan Buddhists have kept Buddhism alive even when the neighbouring India, the motherland of Buddhism had lost it.

After this visit to Sri Lanka, wherever Dr. Ambedkar went, he talked about Buddhism, its past glory and its future prospects. In one of the meetings on September 29, 1950, he declared that he would devote the rest of his life to the revival and spread of Buddhism in India.

On knowing this declaration, Sankar's Weekly of Delhi, a periodical devoted to cartoons, humorously called him 'Bhikkhu Bhimrao'. If he would have survived for some more years after his conversion to Buddhism in 1956, definetly he might have become a bhikkhu to spread Dhamma and fullfil his dream of making India a Buddhist India.

Dr. Ambedkar's love and devotion for Buddhism is evident from the Constitution of India of which he was the chief architect. It was due to his efforts that the Buddhist wheel of Dhammachakra also known as Ashoka Chakra was incorporated in the Indian national flag and the Lions from an Ashokan Pillar at Sarnath was adopted as National Emblem by the constituent Assembly. Thereby officially giving India its age old Buddhist identity.

In December 1954 Dr. Ambedkar went to Burma to participate in the conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists which was held at Rangoon. While in Burma, he was the guest of Dr. R. L. Soni, Director-in-Chief of the world institute of Buddhist Culture. There while with Dr. Soni, he finally decided to formally embrace Buddhism in 1956. Dr. Ambedkar had great fascination for the Buddhist worship also. He wanted his followers to follow the Buddhist way of life as diligently as possible.

For their benefit and guidance he published in 1956 'Bauddha Pooja Path' a Manual for Buddhist Worship, in Pali and Marati. He bought five acres of land near Bangalore city to build a Buddhist Aramaya which is now completed along with a big stupa. Giving a talk for the B.B.C. London on 12th May 1956 Dr.Ambedkar said: I prefer Buddhism because it gives three principles in combination which no other religion does.

All other religions are bothering themselves with God and Soul and life after death. Buddhism teaches Prajna (understanding as against superstition and supernaturalism). It teaches Karuna (love). It teaches Samanathmata (equality). This is what man wants for a good and happy life on earth. These three principles of Buddhism make their appeal to me.

These three principles should also make an appeal to the world. Neither God nor Soul can serve Society. Again Dr. Ambedkar speaking on the subject Buddhism and Communism at the closing session of the Fourth Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in the State Gallery Hall in Kathmandu (Nepal) ,on 20th November 1956 said: It is not necessary for the Buddhist people to go to Karl Marx to get that foundation. That foundation is already there, well laid. It is the first proposition with which the Buddha begins his sermon-the Dharma-Chakra Pravarthana Sutta.

Therefore, to those who are attracted by Karl Marx, I say, study the Dharma-Chakra Pravartana Sutta and find out what the Buddha says. And you will find sufficient satisfaction on this question. The Buddha did not lay the foundation of his religion either on god, or on soul, or anything supernatural as to that. He laid his finger on the fact of life - people are living with suffering.

Therefore so far as Marxism or Communism is concerned, Buddhism has enough of it. And the Buddha has said it 2000 years before Marx was born. And this is what I want to say, in conclusion, that one of the greatest things I find in Buddhism is that His system is a democratic system.

The Buddha told the Vajis when the Chief Minister of Ajat Shatru went to ask Him, that Ajat Shatru wants to conquer the Vajis, and he said Ajat Shatru won't be able to do it until the Vajis follow their ways of their age-old system. It is unfortunate that the Buddha did not explain in plain terms what He meant.

But there is no doubt about it that what the Buddha was referring to was the democratic and the republican form of Government, which the Vajis had. He said, so long as the Vajis were following their system, they would not be conquered.

The Buddha, of course, was a great democrat. I have been a student of politics, and I have spent a great deal of time in studying Karl Marx, Communism and all that, and I have also spent a good deal of time in studying the Buddha's Dhamma, and after comparing the two I came to the conclusion that Buddha advise with regard to the great problem of the world namely that there is Dukkha, that the Dukkha must be removed, that the Buddha's method was the safest and the soundest, and I advise the younger generation of the Buddhist countries to pay more attention to the actual teachings of the Buddha.

Thus the contribution of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar is that he revived Buddhism in India and also at international level tried to replace Communism with Buddhism with his convincing talks on public platforms. Dr. Ambedkar was the first to suggest the formation of a World Buddhist Mission to spread the message of the Buddha to the world.

The founder Director in Chief of the World Institute of Buddhist culture from Burma Sri R.L. Soni once said 'When I think of Dr. Ambedkar, he appeals to me as a gentleman of distinction, great scholar, a brilliant author, an able statesman, an outstanding social reformer, a remarkable law giver, a patriot in the true sense, a lovable friend, and a dhammaduta par excellence.

Multitalented, this devoted son of mother India laboured hard to remove the blot of Untouchability from her face. A man of practical sense, this intellectual luminary was, above all, a far-sighted religious leader. He was certainly the hero of the contemporary Buddhist renaissance in India. Moreover in the annals of the worldwide revival of Buddhism in the mid-twentieth century, he stands out as a beacon for all times and climes. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar's 115th Birth Anniversary is on 14th April. ---

Rich Dhaniya talks to the Buddha

Dhaniya sutta: In the Dhaniya sutta a wealthy herdsman by the name of Dhaniya talks about himself rather boastfully when he has a conversation with the Buddha. Dhaniya: "I have boiled my rice and finished my milking. By the banks of the Mahi River I live with my companions. My house is roofed and the fire is lit. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain." The Buddha: "I have no anger and my mind Is free from callousness.

For one night I stay Near the banks of the Mahi River. My house is roofless. My fire is not burning. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" 'My house is roofless' probably refers to the recluse who lives without the shelter of any house. It could also refer to the unconditioned state of openness of the truly Liberated Ones. 'My fire is not burning' could similarly refer to the karma-less state wherein all the fires of desire are no more.

Dhaniya: "There are no gadflies here. In the lush grassy fields the cows are grazing. They can endure rain if it comes. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" The Buddha: "There is a well-timbered raft. Having crossed over the flood That sweeps one away from Liberation, I have reached the further shore of Nirvana. I need the raft no more. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" Dhaniya: "Attentive is my wife, not loose. She has been with me for long. She is nice.

I hear nothing bad of her. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" The Buddha: "Attentive is my mind, fully free. Over a long time it has been well tamed. No longer is there anything Unwholesome in me. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" Dhaniya: "I am self-supporting. My sons who are living with me enjoy good health. I hear nothing bad of them. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" The Buddha: "I am not the servant of anyone.

With my own earnings I wander in the world. I need no wage. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" Dhaniya: "I have cows, calves, pregnant cows, heifers as well as a bull that lords it around the cows. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" The Buddha: "I have no cows, No calves, No pregnant cows, No heifers and No bull that lords it around the cows. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" Dhaniya: "The stakes are firmly grounded and unshakeable.

The munga grass ropes are new and of such high quality that the cows cannot break them. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" The Buddha: "Like a bull that breaks its bonds, Like an elephant that tears a creeper apart, Never again will I enter into a womb. So, O sky-deva, if you wish, rain!" All of a sudden there was a heavy shower that filled both the low-lying lands and the high.

On hearing the sound of the rain, Dhaniya declared, "Great is our gain after seeing the Buddha! O great Sage, be our teacher, we seek refuge in you, O Seer!" "Both my wife and I are attentive. We shall lead the holy life before the Happy One. We shall terminate the cycle of births and deaths and end suffering." Mara (the Evil One): "He who has sons takes delight in having sons. He who has cows takes delight in having cows.

For attachment is man's source of delight. But the one without attachments has gone beyond the need for delight." The Buddha: "One with sons will grieve over his sons. One with cows will grieve over his cows. For attachment, Is the source of man's grief But the one without attachments, Being carefree, never grieves." Courtesy: The First and Best Buddhist Teachings ---

'Against the stream'

Prema Ranawaka-Das

Micca ditti: That Buddhism goes "against the stream" of wrong understanding (micca ditti) prevalent in the world is evidenced by the frenzied attempt of all and sundry to destroy it or, if that is impossible, to adulterate and distort it beyond recognition.

Apart from the normal conversion tactics, there is the more diabolical trick of recruiting hirelings, posing as Buddhists to twist its true meaning. Not surprisingly, those habitually donning the "sil redda" to go and worship what preaches the opposite of the Buddha-word, rally round these pretenders, too.

Only one Buddha arises in a world system. Now men come crashing through the time barriers whooping they are "Buddha Metteyya" no less - born before time! The truth will out. An ardent fan, who arranged tripe to sow anti-Buddhism seeds abroad, came unannounced to south Sri Lanka one day to find his "saviour" sprawling on the ground dead drunk.

Professionals, like doctors and lawyers, gravitate towards these cliques, as their teaching smacks of modernity and especially because no discipline is required of the adherents. Their preaches call themselves "Sovan", which is the first step of the four stages of sainthood. They do not know that a Sovan is distinguished by his total, unalterable faith (saddha) in the Buddha, Dhamma and Ariya Sangha, resulting from his first glimpse of Nibbana.

Our pseudo-sovans like nothing better than to cock a snook at the Triple Gem! They say, Do not go for refuge to the Buddha/Dhamma/Sangha, but to the "Buddha in You".

This being the world's ever-present perennial philosophy "Thou art That", "God is You", etc. which Buddhism rejects, to go beyond. Rebirth As rebirth scares them out of their wits, they say, "Hell is only in the mind". when Kitty and Rover are pointed out as manifestations of the tirachanayoni woeful realm in Buddhism, they shudder in horror and turn away, muttering, "Darwin's evolutionary thing"! They reject the five precepts - not to kill, steal, have unlawful sex, lie, imbibe intoxicants. But after Soma Thera's loud insistence of basics, they dare not deny them.

A Bodhi pooja is a recollection of the Buddha's unique qualities and what better spot for this than near the Bodhi tree, where the Bodhisatta awakened to Buddhahood? If done correctly, it has been proved to overpower bad influences. Our fake "sovans" sneer at the practice as "Tree Worship". Giving (dana) is part of Buddhism.

They dismiss it with, "If giving reduces grasping, throw your offering into the garbage pit without looking for recipients". Loving-kindness, which is the bedrock of Buddhism, is viewed by them so fearfully, that recitation of the Karaniya Metta Sutta is prohibited.

They are panic-stricken that, hearing the Buddha's classic call of compassion, evil spirits will invade the house! It is way over their heads that the loving kindness/compassion taught in Buddhism is meant to tame, subdue and transform beings, including the environment.

The Buddha says if anybody tries to harm his disciple practising loving-kindness, it will be like one grasping a double-edged knife, which will only cut and wound oneself. These "sovans" strain at debunking the teaching by saying, "He/she/they know their dhamma", leaving the Buddha out of it. Anytime anybody leaves the Buddha out, you can bet he is barking up the wrong tree! Psychiatrists say their mental wards have a number of patients, calling themselves "sovan", and even "Awkana Buddha", keeping one arm raised as proof.

Lifestyles

It has come to such a pass, that manufacturers sell packets of their produce with a note boasting that the owner is "sovan" and demanding why flowers are wasted on the Buddha's shrine, when they can be used to make soap! The loving gratitude expressed in the pure offering, coupled with the profound meditation in impermanence of the flower, together with the body and mind of the one who offers is beyond their understanding.

A peek into their lifestyles, which their acquaintances are eager to expose - possible on account of their arrogance - reveals they are out of sight of the Buddha's doctrine of abstaining from evil, doing all good and purifying the mind.

What is astonishing is how Buddhists, confronting these attacks against their religion, sometimes on TV prime time, remain silent! These fake "sovans" should be prohibited from using Buddhist terminology, like, "Buddha", "Arahant", "Sovan", "Rebirth", "Kamma", etc. all of which they vilify with their bizarre interpretation. They should be asked to promote their own myth in their own words, without desperately trying to degrade Buddhism.

They do not acknowledge the Four Noble Truths - the foundation of Buddhism, revealed in the Buddha's first sermon. Suffice it to say, their "sovan" claim is totally refuted by the Buddha's statement that outside of his Noble Eightfold Path, comprising, right understanding, right mindedness, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration, there is no, repeat, no sovan, sakadagami, anagami or arahant - that is, no salvation from suffering. ----

What the Buddha taught

If I were given a chance I would ask Venerable Ananda "What was it that The Buddha taught". He would (I have no doubt) Look askarie At me view The world outside Be silent for a while And Smile Beniningly At me Thinking "What a poor mortal This is" Ariyawansa Ranaweera ---

Tripitaka presented to Tibetan University

A religious programme was organized at Mulagandha Kuti Vihara, Saranath, India for presenting the complete set of Sinhala 'Tripitaka' published by Government of Sri Lanka to Tibetan University.

Ven. Dr. D. Rewatha Thera General Secretary, Maha Bodhi Society of India along with Ven. K. Siri Sumedha Thera, Assistant General Secretary of the Society presented the Sinhala Tripitaka to the special representative of his Holiness the Dalai Lama, Ven. Prof, Nawang Samten Vice Chancellor of Tibetan University and Director of Central Institute of Higher Tibetan studies at Saranath. Here are the distinguished gathering at the presentation ceremony.

Buddhist monks chanting in pali (Sankalpa)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijshNb7Mt0M&feature=related

practicing Buddhist Chanting

The 'Going for Refuge' and taking the Precepts define a person as a practising Buddhist.

Going for Refuge gives a continual perspective on life by referring one's conduct and understanding to the qualities of Buddha (wisdom), Dhamma (truth) and Sangha (virtue). The Precepts are also for reflection and to define one's actions as a responsible human being.

There is a formal means of requesting the Refuges and Precepts from a bhikkhu or nun, which is as follows:

(A) The lay person should bow three times and, with hands in añjali[*], recite the following:

'Mayam/Aham bhante (ayye) ti-saranena saha pañca silani yacama/yacami.'
We/I, Venerable Sir (Sister), request the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts.

'Dutiyampi mayam/aham bhante (ayye) ...'
For the second time we/I ...

'Tatiyampi mayam/aham bhante (ayye) ...'
For the third time we/I ...

(B) The bhikkhu or nun will then recite the following, three times, after which the lay person should repeat three times:

'Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa.'
Homage to the Blessed One, the Noble One, and Perfectly Enlightened One.

(C) The bhikkhu or nun will then recite the following line by line, which the lay person should repeat line by line:

'Buddham saranam gacchami.'
To the Buddha I go for Refuge.

'Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
To the Dhamma I go for Refuge.

'Sangham saranam gacchami.'
To the Sangha I go for Refuge.

'Dutiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Dutiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Dutiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Tatiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

'Tatiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

'Tatiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

(D) The bhikkhu or nun then says:

'Tisarana-gamanam nitthitam.'
This completes the going to the Three Refuges.

The lay person responds:

'Ama bhante (ayye).'
Yes, Venerable Sir (Sister).

(E) The bhikkhu or nun then recites the Precepts singly, and the lay person repeats line by line:

1. 'Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures.

2. 'Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not given.

3. 'Kamesu micchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from sexual misconduct.

4. 'Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech.

5. 'Sura-meraya-majja-pamadatthana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicating liquors and drugs which
lead to carelessness.

(F) After the Five Precepts have been taken, the bhikkhu or nun will conclude with the following:

'Imani pañca sikkhapadani
These Five Precepts

'Silena sugatim yanti,
Have morality as a vehicle for happiness,

'Silena bhogasampada,
Have morality as a vehicle for good fortune,

'Silena nibbutim yanti:
Have morality as a vehicle for liberation:

'Tasma silam visodhaye.'
Let morality therefore be purified.

(G) After taking the Precepts, the lay person then bows three times to the bhikkhu or nun.

* * *

A note on pronunciation: When a Pali word ends with the letter 'm', that 'm' is pronounced 'ng', as in the word 'hang'. So, for example, 'Buddham' is pronounced as 'Buddhang'.

* * *

The Refuges and Precepts

The 'Going for Refuge' and taking the Precepts define a person as a practising Buddhist.

Going for Refuge gives a continual perspective on life by referring one's conduct and understanding to the qualities of Buddha (wisdom), Dhamma (truth) and Sangha (virtue). The Precepts are also for reflection and to define one's actions as a responsible human being.

There is a formal means of requesting the Refuges and Precepts from a bhikkhu or nun, which is as follows:

(A) The lay person should bow three times and, with hands in añjali[*], recite the following:

'Mayam/Aham bhante (ayye) ti-saranena saha pañca silani yacama/yacami.'
We/I, Venerable Sir (Sister), request the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts.

'Dutiyampi mayam/aham bhante (ayye) ...'
For the second time we/I ...

'Tatiyampi mayam/aham bhante (ayye) ...'
For the third time we/I ...

(B) The bhikkhu or nun will then recite the following, three times, after which the lay person should repeat three times:

'Namo tassa bhagavato arahato sammasambuddhassa.'
Homage to the Blessed One, the Noble One, and Perfectly Enlightened One.

(C) The bhikkhu or nun will then recite the following line by line, which the lay person should repeat line by line:

'Buddham saranam gacchami.'
To the Buddha I go for Refuge.

'Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
To the Dhamma I go for Refuge.

'Sangham saranam gacchami.'
To the Sangha I go for Refuge.

'Dutiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Dutiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Dutiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami.'
For the second time ...

'Tatiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

'Tatiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

'Tatiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami.'
For the third time ...

(D) The bhikkhu or nun then says:

'Tisarana-gamanam nitthitam.'
This completes the going to the Three Refuges.

The lay person responds:

'Ama bhante (ayye).'
Yes, Venerable Sir (Sister).

(E) The bhikkhu or nun then recites the Precepts singly, and the lay person repeats line by line:

1. 'Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures.

2. 'Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not given.

3. 'Kamesu micchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from sexual misconduct.

4. 'Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech.

5. 'Sura-meraya-majja-pamadatthana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami.'
I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicating liquors and drugs which
lead to carelessness.

(F) After the Five Precepts have been taken, the bhikkhu or nun will conclude with the following:

'Imani pañca sikkhapadani
These Five Precepts

'Silena sugatim yanti,
Have morality as a vehicle for happiness,

'Silena bhogasampada,
Have morality as a vehicle for good fortune,

'Silena nibbutim yanti:
Have morality as a vehicle for liberation:

'Tasma silam visodhaye.'
Let morality therefore be purified.

(G) After taking the Precepts, the lay person then bows three times to the bhikkhu or nun.

* * *

A note on pronunciation: When a Pali word ends with the letter 'm', that 'm' is pronounced 'ng', as in the word 'hang'. So, for example, 'Buddham' is pronounced as 'Buddhang'.

* * *

Origin of Democracy and Republic -Greek Myth

Almost all historians have been saying Democracy & Republic originated in West(in greece), the bastion of Free people. Let us see the facts in detail.

India has democracy from early days earlier than GreeceIndia has democracy at all levels right from village level to state, Not just State level.It is entirely possible that Democracy travelled from India to Greece.Teachings of Buddhism and jainism inspire democracy and republicanism , what inspired Greece.

Let us see evidences

First democracy and Republics

SumerianEarly Sumerian period is said to be democratic between 2900BC to 2300BC , but we have no solid evidence to support the theory, we have only pointers

IndianNext comes the Indian reference Rig Veda between 4000BC to 2000BC. Which talk of Sabha , samiti to elect the ruler. Ramayana(500BC) also mentions samiti. Vaishali was the capital of the vibrant Republican Licchavi state since before the birth of Mahavira(founder of Jainism- 599 BC), which suggests that it was perhaps the first republic in the world.

The most useful Greek account of India is Arrian's Anabasis of Alexander , which describes the Macedonian conqueror's campaigns in great detail. The Anabasis, which is derived from the eyewitness accounts of Alexander's companions, portrays him as meeting "free and independent" Indian communities at every turn. What "free and independent" meant is illustrated from the case of Nysa, a city on the border of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan that was ruled by a president named Aculphis and a council of 300. After surrendering to Alexander(327BC), Aculphis used the city's supposed connection with the god Dionysus to seek lenient terms from the king

The first-hand description of India by a Greek traveler named Megasthenes. After Alexander's invasion, Megasthenes served as ambassador of the Greek king Seleucus Nicator to the Indian emperor Chandragupta Maurya, and in the course of his duties crossed northern India to the eastern city of Patna, where he lived for a while. If this statement is drawn from Megasthenes, then the picture of a northwestern India dominated by republics must be extended to the entire northern half of the subcontinent.

The most useful sources for mapping north India are three: The Pali Canon, which shows us northeastern India between the Himalayas and the Ganges in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.; the grammar of Panini, which discusses all of North India, with a focus on the northwest, during the fifth century; and Kautilya's Arthasastra, which is a product of the fourth century, roughly contemporaneous with Megasthenes. All three sources enable us to identify numerous sanghas and ganas, some very minor, others large and powerful.

According to Panini, all the states and Republics (janapadas ) of northern India during his time were based on the settlement or conquest of a given area by an identifiable warrior people who still dominated the political life of that area. Some of these peoples (in Panini's terms janapadins ) were subject to a king, who was at least in theory of their own blood and was perhaps dependent on their special support. Elsewhere, the janapadins ran their affairs in a republican manner. Thus in both kinds of state, the government was dominated by people classified as ksatriyas, or, as later ages would put it, members of the warrior caste.

Kautilya: according to him, there were two kinds of janapadas, ayudhiya-praya, those made up mostly of soldiers, and sreni-praya , those comprising guilds of craftsmen, traders, and agriculturalists. The first were political entities where military tradition alone defined those worthy of power, while the second would seem to be communities where wealth derived from peaceful economic activity gave some access to the political process. This interpretation is supported by the fact that sreni or guilds based on an economic interest were often both part of the armed force of a state and recognized as having jurisdiction over their own members.

The numerous members of a sovereign gana or sangha interacted with each other as members of an assembly. Details of the working of such assemblies can be found both in Brahmanical and Buddhist literature. By the time of Panini (fifth century B.C.), there was a terminology for the process of corporate decision-making. Panini gives us the terms for vote, decisions reached by voting, and the completion of a quorum. Another cluster of words indicates that the division of assemblies into political parties was well known. Further, Panini and his commentators show that sometimes a smaller select group within a sangha had special functions -- acting as an executive, or perhaps as a committees for defined purposes

The rules for conducting the Buddhist sangha were, according to the first chapter of the Maha-parinibbana-suttanta, based in principle on those commonly found in political sanghas or ganas. In the case of the Buddhist sangha, the key organizational virtue was the full participation of all the monks in the ritual and disciplinary acts of their group. To assure that this would be remembered, detailed rules concerning the voting in monastic assemblies, their membership, and their quorums, were set down in the Mahavagga and the Kullavagga . Business could only be transacted legitimately in a full assembly, by a vote of all the members. If, for example, a candidate wanted the upasampada ordination, the question (ñatti) was put to the sangha by a learned and competent member, and the other members asked three times to indicate dissent. If there was none, the sangha was taken to be in agreement with the ñatti. The decision was finalized by the proclamation of the decision of the sangha.

The Pali Canon gives us our earliest, and perhaps our best, detailed look at Indian republicanism, its workings, and its political philosophy. About no other republics do we know as much as we do about the Buddhist sangha and the Licchavis in the time of Buddha even though we do know that republics survived and were a significant factor until perhaps the fourth century A.D., a period of over 800 years. Scattered inscriptions, a great number of coins, and the occasional notice in Greek sources, the Jatakas or other Indian literature give us a few facts.

GreekFour centuries before the beginning of this millennium, Plato indicted the city-state of Athens for handing over power to the people, for they had neither the inclination nor the training to run their lives. From the 5th century BCE (BC), Athenian democracy gave citizens equal rights to participate in decision making and to hold public office; it was based on the ideal of equality among citizens. One small caveat though - not everyone was a citizen. Only native Athenian men over the age of twenty were eligible for active citizenship. Not the 60 per cent of the Athenian population who were slaves, certainly not women, and not the so-called "immigrants" whose families had settled in Athens several generations earlier. But Plato looked on even this highly restricted citizenship with dismay.

AmericaHistorian Jack Weatherford asserts that Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and others, got their ideas on democracy not from any Greek or Roman influence, but from the Iroquois and other indigenous peoples of the Americas, who practiced the type of democracy found in the United States Constitution, through self-governing territories that were part of a larger whole. This democracy was founded between the years 1000-1450, and lasted several hundred years. He also states that American democracy was continually changed and improved by the influence of Native Americans throughout North America. For example, the right of women to vote started on the American frontier, and moved eastward. In other words, Americans learned democracy from the indigenous peoples of the North America.

Levels of DemocracyDemocracy and Republicanism are not same everywhere, Some places we had Rulers being elected, some places councils were elected, some places some regions also have democracies. The next most important thing is levels of participation. We cannot compare todays democracies and republics with yesteryears. But India had mature level of democracy ,which shows deep rooted democratic institutions.

Democracy travelled from East to West.

It is entirely possible that democracy and republicanism travelled from East to west. Since religions in east contemplated renouncing all desires. And also we have suddenly democracy arriving in west. That means import from some where else. All along Greek and Roman intelligentsia are aware of eastern thoughts.

Religious RoleTeachings of Rig veda , Buddhism and jainism created sabhas, samitis and sanghas which were primarily democratic institutions. The monarchy is always weak in India , because of democratic institutions. Empowering of the monarchy happened with Brahminical text Manu and Kautilya arthasastra. For which ruling caste was created and subsequently other castes. Later religious texts like puranas also maintained the primacy of kings until 10th century when both buddhism and jainism were active.

We can see from the above article democracy and Republicanism originated in India and travelled to west.

http://controversialhistory.blogspot.com/2007/12/origin-of-democracy-and-republicanism.html

Essence of Buddhism

I. There is no god (existence of supernatural power) in Buddhism.

II. Buddhism is based on Rationality:

Buddha says on rationality/reasoning:

Do not believe in traditions merely because they have been handed down for many generations and in many places; do not believe in anything because it is rumoured and spoken of by many; do not believe because the written statements of some old sage is produced; do not believe in what you have fancied, thinking that because it is extraordinary, it must have been implanted by a deva or a wonderful being. After observation and analysis, when it agrees with reason and is conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live up to it.

-Kalama Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya

Accordingly Buddhism requires nothing to be accepted on trust without enquiry.

III. Panchacila:

1. Pranatipata vermani sikka padam samadiyami

Meaning no killing of living being.

2. Adinna dana vermani sikkapadam samadiyami

Meaning no stealing.

3. Kame su mithyachara vermani sikkapadam samadiyami

Meaning no adultery.

4. Musa vada vermani sikkapadam samadiyami

Meaning no lying

5. Suramerayamajja thana vermmani sikkapadam samadiyami

Meaning no consumption of toxicating drinks.

IV. The Four Noble Truths

1. Dukkha Suffering

2. Samudaya The arising of the suffering

3. Nirodha The cessation of suffering

4. Magga The path leading to the cessation of suffering

V. Noble Eightfold Path

Noble Eightfold Path consists of the following :

1. Samma –ditthi Right Understanding

2. Samma – sankalpa Right Thought

3. Samma – vaca Right speech

4. Samma- kammanta Right action

5. Samma – ajiva Right livelihood

6. Samma – vayama Right Efforts

7. Samma – sati Right Mindfulness

8. Samma – samadhi Right Concentration

VI. Ten Paramitas

Parami is a pali word meaning perfection.

1. Dana Giving, generosity, liberality

2. Cila Virtuous conduct, morality, righteousness

3. Khanti Forebearance, patience

4. Virya Energy

5. Nekkhamma Renunciation, selflessness

6. Prajna Wisdom, insight, intution

7. Sacca Truthfulness, honesty

8. Pranidhana Aspiration or resolution/determination

9. Metta Loving-kindness, compassionate

10. Upekkha Equanimity, calm, serene, unruffled and peaceful

VII. Advice of Buddha:

Sabba papassa akaranam, kusalassa upasampada

Sacittapariyodapanam, etam Buddhana sasanam

Meaning,

To cease from doing all evils, to cultivate good

To purify one’s mind, this is the advice of Buddha.

VIII. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar on Buddhism:

I like Buddhism because it gives the following three principles, which no other religion does:

1. Prajna Understanding as against superstition and supernaturalism

2. Karuna Love

3. Samata Equality

That is what man wants for good and happy life on earth.

Buddhist Economics : A Middle Way for the market place

by Ven. P. A. Payutto

translated by Dhammavijaya and Bruce Evans

compiled by Bruce Evans and Jourdan Arenson

Introduction

The Spiritual Approach to Economics

Our libraries are full of books offering well-reasoned, logical formulas for the ideal society. Two thousand years ago, Plato, in The Republic, wrote one of the first essays on politics and started a search for an ideal society which has continued to the present day. Plato built his ideal society on the assumption that early societies grew from a rational decision to secure well-being, but if we look at the course of history, can we say that rational thinking has truly been the guiding force in the evolution of civilization? The reader is invited to imagine the beginnings of human society: groups of stone age humans are huddled together in their caves, each looking with suspicion on the group in the next cave down. They are cold and hungry. Danger and darkness surround them. Suddenly one of them hits on a brilliant idea: "I know, let's create a society where we can trade and build hospitals and live in mutual well-being!"

Such a scenario is not likely. Early humans, and the first societies, were probably bound together more by their deep emotional needs for warmth and security than any rational planning. And over the millennia, our societies have evolved to a large extent at the directives of these emotional needs. To be sure, rational thinking has played some part in the process, but if we take an honest look at our so-called advanced society, we must admit that our needs for security today are not so different from the cave man's. While our societies are certainly more complex, the propelling force is still emotion, not reason.

If we are to honestly discuss economics, we must admit that emotional factors -- fear and desire and the irrationality they generate -- have a very powerful influence on the market place. Economic decisions -- decisions about production, consumption and distribution -- are made by people in their struggle to survive and prosper. For the most part, these decisions are motivated by an emotional urge for self-preservation.

There is nothing inherently bad about fear and irrationality; they are natural conditions that come with being human. Unfortunately, however, fear and desire drive us to our worst economic excesses. The forces of greed, exploitation and overconsumption seem to have overwhelmed our economies in recent decades. Our materialistic societies offer us little choice but to exploit and compete for survival in today's dog-eat-dog world. But at the same time, it is obvious that these forces are damaging our societies and ravaging our environment.

In the face of such problems, the science of economics adopts a rational approach. The job of economists is to devise well-reasoned models to help society rise above fear, greed and hatred. Rarely, however, do economists examine the basic question of fear and the emotional needs for security that drive human beings. As a result, their theoretical models remain rational solutions to largely irrational problems, and their economic ideals can only truly exist in books.

Perhaps a little idealism is not so harmful; but there is a danger to the purely rational approach. At its worst, it is used to rationalize our basest, most fear-ridden responses to the question of survival. We see this tendency in the corporate strategists, policy advisors and defense analysts who logically and convincingly argue that arms production is in our best interests. When rationalism turns a blind eye to the irrational, unseen irrational impulses are all the more likely to cloud our rationality.

The book you are reading takes a different approach -- a spiritual approach. As such, it does not delve into the technical intricacies of economics. Instead it examines the fundamental fears, desires and emotions that motivate our economic activities. Of all the spiritual traditions, Buddhism is best suited to this task. As we shall see, the Buddhist teachings offer profound insights into the psychology of desire and the motivating forces of economic activity. These insights can lead to a liberating self-awareness that slowly dissolves the confusion between what is truly harmful and what is truly beneficial in production and consumption. This awareness is, in turn, the foundation for a mature ethics.

Truly rational decisions must be based on insight into the forces that make us irrational. When we understand the nature of desire, we see that it cannot be satisfied by all the riches in the world. When we understand the universality of fear, we find a natural compassion for all beings. Thus, the spiritual approach to economics leads not to models and theories, but to the vital forces that can truly benefit our world -- wisdom, compassion and restraint.

In other words, the spiritual approach must be lived. This is not to say that one must embrace Buddhism and renounce the science of economics, because, in the larger scheme of things, the two are mutually supportive. In fact, one needn't be a Buddhist or an economist to practice Buddhist economics. One need only acknowledge the common thread that runs through life and seek to live in balance with the way things really are.

Bruce Evans and Jourdan Arenson

Chapter One

The Problem of Specialization

In a discussion of Buddhist economics, the first question that arises is whether such a thing actually exists, or whether it is even possible. The image of a Buddhist monk quietly walking on alms round does not readily come to mind as an economic activity for most people. Skyscrapers, shopping centers and the stock market would more accurately fit the bill. At present the economics that we are acquainted with is a Western one. When talking of economics or matters pertaining to it, we use a Western vocabulary and we think within the conceptual framework of Western economic theory. It is difficult to avoid these constraints when talking about a Buddhist economics. We might find ourselves in fact discussing Buddhism with the language and concepts of Western economics. Even so, in the course of this book, I hope to at least provide some Buddhist perspectives on things that can be usefully employed in economics.

While economic thinking has been in existence since the time of Plato and Aristotle, the study of economics has only really crystallized into a science in the industrial era. Like other sciences in this age of specialization, economics has become a narrow and rarefied discipline; an isolated, almost stunted, body of knowledge, having little to do with other disciplines or human activities.

Ideally, the sciences should provide solutions to the complex, interrelated problems that face humanity, but cut off as it is from other disciplines and the larger sphere of human activity, economics can do little to ease the ethical, social and environmental problems that face us today. And given the tremendous influence it exerts on our market-driven societies, narrow economic thinking may, in fact, be the primary cause of some of our most pressing social and environmental troubles.

Like other sciences, economics strives for objectivity. In the process, however, subjective values, such as ethics, are excluded. With no consideration of subjective, moral values, an economist may say, for instance, that a bottle of whiskey and a Chinese dinner have the same economic value, or that drinking in a night club contributes more to the economy than listening to a religious talk or volunteering for humanitarian work. These are truths according to economics.

But the objectivity of economics is shortsighted. Economists look at just one short phase of the natural causal process and single out the part that interests them, ignoring the wider ramifications. Thus, modern economists take no account of the ethical consequences of economic activity. Neither the vices associated with the frequenting of night clubs, nor the wisdom arising from listening to a religious teaching, are its concern.

But is it in fact desirable to look on economics as a science? Although many believe that science can save us from the perils of life, it has many limitations. Science shows only one side of the truth, that which concerns the material world. By only considering the material side of things, the science of economics is out of step with the overall truth of the way things are. Given that all things in this world are naturally interrelated and interconnected, it follows that human problems must also be interrelated and interconnected. One-sided scientific solutions are bound to fail, and the problems bound to spread.

Environmental degradation is the most obvious and dangerous consequence to our industrialized, specialized approach to solving problems. Environmental problems have become so pressing that people are now beginning to see how foolish it is to place their faith in individual, isolated disciplines that ignore the larger perspective. They are starting to look at human activities on a broader scale, to see the repercussions their actions have on personal lives, society, and the environment.

From a Buddhist perspective, economics cannot be separated from other branches of knowledge. Economics is rather one component of a concerted effort to remedy the problems of humanity; and an economics based on Buddhism, a "Buddhist economics," is therefore not so much a self-contained science, but one of a number of interdependent disciplines working in concert toward the common goal of social, individual and environmental well-being.

One of the first to integrate the Buddha's teachings with economics (and indeed to coin the phrase "Buddhist economics") was E. F. Schumacher in his book Small is Beautiful.[*] In his essay on Buddhist economics, Mr. Schumacher looks to the Buddhist teaching of the Noble Eightfold Path to make his case. He affirms that the inclusion of the factor of Right Livelihood in the Eightfold Path, in other words the Buddhist way of life, indicates the necessity of a Buddhist economics. This is Mr. Schumacher's starting point.

Looking back, we can see that both the writing of Small is Beautiful, and the subsequent interest in Buddhist economics shown by some Western academics, took place in response to a crisis. Western academic disciplines and conceptual structures have reached a point which many feel to be a dead end, or if not, at least a turning point demanding new paradigms of thought and methodology. This has led many economists to rethink their isolated, specialized approach. The serious environmental repercussions of rampant consumerism have compelled economists to develop more ecological awareness. Some even propose that all new students of economics incorporate basic ecology into their curriculum.

Mr. Schumacher's point that the existence of Right Livelihood as one of the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path necessitates a Buddhist economics has a number of implications. Firstly, it indicates the importance given to Right Livelihood (or economics) in Buddhism. Secondly, and conversely, it means that economics is taken to be merely one amongst a number of factors (traditionally eight) that comprise a right way of life, that is, one capable of solving the problems of life.

Specialization can be a great benefit as long as we don't lose sight of our common goal: as a specialized study, economics allows us to analyze with minute detail the causes and factors within economic activities. But it is a mistake to believe that any one discipline or field of learning can in itself solve all problems. In concert with other disciplines, however, economics can constitute a complete response to human suffering, and it is only by fully understanding the contributions and limitations of each discipline that we will be able to produce such a coordinated effort.

Unfortunately, as it stands, economics is grossly out of touch with the whole stream of causes and conditions that constitute reality. Economics, and indeed all the social sciences, are, after all, based on man-made or artificial truths. For example, according to natural laws, the action of digging the earth results in a hole. This is a fixed cause and effect relationship based on natural laws. However, the digging which results in a wage is a conventional truth based on a social agreement. Without the social agreement, the action of digging does not result in a wage. While economists scrutinize one isolated segment of the cause and effect process, the universe manifests itself in an inconceivably vast array of causes and conditions, actions and reactions. Focused as they are on the linear progression of the economic events that concern them, economists forget that nature unfolds in all directions. In nature, actions and results are not confined to isolated spheres. One action gives rise to results, which in turn becomes a cause for further results. Each result conditions further results. In this way, action and reaction are intertwined to form the vibrant fabric of causes and conditions that we perceive as reality. To understand reality, it is necessary to understand this process.

The Two Meanings of Dhamma

For many people, the term "Buddhist economics" may evoke the image of an ideal society where all economic activity -- buying and selling, production and consumption -- adheres to strict ethical standards. But such an idealized image, attractive as it may sound, does not convey the full depth of the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha's teachings point to Dhamma, or truth. In Buddhism the term Dhamma is used to convey different levels of truth, both relative truths and ultimate truth.

Those truths regarding ethical behavior -- both on a personal day-to-day basis and in society -- are called cariyadhamma. These are the truths related to matters of good and evil. Dhamma in its larger sense is saccadhamma, truth, or sabhavadhamma, reality: it includes all things as they are and the laws by which they function. In this sense, Dhamma is used to describe the entire stream of causes and conditions, the process by which all things exist and function.

Unlike the narrower scope of cariyadhamma, which refers to isolated ethical considerations, sabhavadhamma points to nature or reality itself, which is beyond concerns of good and evil. In this all-encompassing sense, Dhamma expresses the totality of natural conditions, that which the various branches of science seek to describe.

Thus, the Buddha's teachings give us more than just ethical guidelines for a virtuous life. His teachings offer a grand insight into the nature of reality. Given the twofold meaning of the term Dhamma, it follows that an economics inspired by the Dhamma would be both attuned to the grand sphere of causes and conditions and, at the same time, guided by the specific ethical teachings based on natural reality. In other words, Buddhist economists would not only consider the ethical values of economic activity, but also strive to understand reality and direct economic activity to be in harmony with "the way things are."

Ultimately, economics cannot be separated from Dhamma, because all the activities we associate with economics emerge from the Dhamma. Economics is just one part of a vast interconnected whole, subject to the same natural laws by which all things function. Dhamma describes the workings of this whole, the basic truth of all things, including economics. If economics is ignorant of the Dhamma -- of the complex and dynamic process of causes-and-effects that constitutes reality -- then it will be hard pressed to solve problems, much less produce the benefits to which it aims.

Yet this is precisely the trouble with modern economic thinking. Lacking any holistic, comprehensive insight and limited by the narrowness of their specialized view, economists single out one isolated portion of the stream of conditions and fail to consider results beyond that point. An example: there exists a demand for a commodity, such as whiskey. The demand is supplied by production -- growing grain and distilling it into liquor. The whiskey is then put on the market and then purchased and consumed. When it is consumed, demand is satisfied. Modern economic thinking stops here, at the satisfaction of the demand. There is no investigation of what happens after the demand is satisfied.

By contrast, an economics inspired by Dhamma would be concerned with how economic activities influence the entire process of causes and conditions. While modern economics confines its regard to events within its specialized sphere, Buddhist economics would investigate how a given economic activity affects the three interconnected spheres of human existence: the individual, society, and nature or the environment. In the case of the demand for a commodity such as whiskey, we would have to ask ourselves how liquor production affects the ecology and how its consumption affects the individual and society.

These are largely ethical considerations and this brings us back to the more specialized meaning of Dhamma, that relating to matters of good and evil. It is said in the Buddhist scriptures that good actions lead to good results and bad actions lead to bad results. All of the Buddha's teachings on ethical behavior are based on this principle. It is important to note here that, unlike the theistic religions, Buddhism does not propose an agent or arbitrating force that rewards or punishes good and evil actions. Rather, good and evil actions are seen as causes and conditions that unfold according to the natural flow of events. In this regard, Dhamma (in the sense of ethical teachings) and Dhamma (in the sense of natural reality) are connected in that the Buddhist ethical teachings are based on natural reality. Ethical laws follow the natural law of cause and effect: virtuous actions naturally lead to benefit and evil actions naturally lead to harm, because all of these are factors in the stream of causes and conditions.

Given its dynamic view of the world, Buddhism does not put forth absolute rules for ethical behavior. The ethical value of behavior is judged partly by the results it brings and partly by the qualities which lead to it. Virtuous actions are good because they lead to benefit; evil actions are evil because they lead to harm. There is a belief that any method used to attain a worthy end is justified by the worthiness of that end. This idea is summed up in the expression "the end justifies the means." Communist revolutionaries, for instance, believed that since the objective is to create an ideal society in which all people are treated fairly, then destroying anybody and anything which stands in the way of that ideal society is justified. The end (the ideal society) justifies the means (hatred and bloodshed).

The idea that "the end justifies the means" is a good example of a human belief which simply does not accord with natural truth. This concept is a human invention, an expedient rationalization which contradicts natural law and "the way things are." Beliefs are not evil in themselves, but when they are in contradiction with reality, they are bound to cause problems. Throughout the ages, people with extreme political and religious ideologies have committed the most brutal acts under the slogan "the end justifies the means." No matter how noble their cause, they ended up destroying that which they were trying to create, which is some kind of happiness or social order.

To learn from history, we must analyze all the causes and conditions that contributed to the unfolding of past events. This includes the qualities of mind of the participants. A thorough analysis of the history of a violent revolution, for example, must consider not only the economic and social climate of the society, but also the emotional and intellectual makeup of the revolutionaries themselves and question the rational validity of the intellectual ideals and methods used, because all of these factors have a bearing on the outcome.

With this kind of analysis, it becomes obvious that, by the natural laws of cause and effect, it is impossible to create an ideal society out of anything less than ideal means -- and certainly not bloodshed and hatred. Buddhism would say that it is not the end which justifies the means, but rather the means which condition the end. Thus, the result of slaughter and hatred is further violence and instability. This can be witnessed in police states and governments produced by violent revolution -- there is always an aftermath of tension, the results of kamma, which often proves to be intolerable and social collapse soon follows. Thus the means (bloodshed and aggression) condition the end (tension and instability).

Yet while ethics are subject to these natural laws, when we have to make personal ethical choices right and wrong are not always so obvious. Indeed, the question of ethics is always a highly subjective matter. Throughout our lives, we continually face -- and must answer for ourselves -- questions of right and wrong. Our every choice, our every intention, holds some ethical judgment.

The Buddhist teachings on matters relating to good and evil serve as guides to help us with these subjective moral choices. But while they are subjective, we should not forget that our ethical choices inevitably play themselves out in the world according to the objective principle of causes and conditions. Our ethics -- and the behavior that naturally flows from our ethics -- contribute to the causes and conditions that determine who we are, the kind of society we live in and the condition of our environment.

One of the most profound lessons of the Buddha's teachings is the truth that internal, subjective values are directly linked to the dynamic of external objective reality. This subtle realization is at the heart of all ethical questions. Unfortunately, most people are only vaguely aware of how their internal values condition external reality. It is easy to observe the laws of cause and effect in the physical world: ripe apples fall from trees and water runs down hill. But because people tend to think of themselves as individuals separate from the universe, they fail to see how the same laws apply to internal subjective values, such as thoughts and moral attitudes. Since ethics are "subjective," people think they are somehow unconnected to "objective" reality.

According to the Buddhist view, however, ethics forms a bridge between internal and external realities. In accordance with the law of causes and conditions, ethics act as "subjective" causes for "objective" conditions. This should be obvious when we consider that, in essence, ethical questions always ask, "Do my thoughts, words and deeds help or harm myself and those around me?" In practice, we rely on ethics to regulate the unwholesome desires of our subjective reality: anger, greed, hatred. The quality of our thoughts, though internal, constantly conditions the way we speak and act. Though subjective, our ethics determine the kind of impact our life makes on the external, objective world.

How Ethics Condition Economics

To be sure, the distinction between economics and ethics is easily discernible. We can look at any economic situation either from an entirely economic perspective, or from an entirely ethical one. For example, you are reading this book. From an ethical perspective, your reading is a good action, you are motivated by a desire for knowledge. This is an ethical judgment. From the economic perspective, on the other hand, this book may seem to be a waste of resources with no clear benefit. The same situation can be seen in different ways.

However, the two perspectives are interconnected and do influence each other. While modern economic thinking rejects any subjective values like ethics, the influence of ethics in economic matters is all too obvious. If a community is unsafe -- if there are thieves, the threat of violence, and the roads are unsafe to travel -- then it is obvious that businesses will not invest there, tourists will not want to go there, and the economy will suffer. On the other hand, if the citizens are law-abiding, well-disciplined and conscientiously help to keep their community safe and clean, businesses will have a much better chance of success and the municipal authorities will not have to spend so much on civic maintenance and security.

Unethical business practices have direct economic consequences. If businesses attempt to fatten their profits by using substandard ingredients in foodstuffs, such as by using cloth-dye as a coloring in children's sweets, substituting chemicals for orange juice, or putting boric acid in meatballs (all of which have occurred in Thailand in recent years), consumers' health is endangered. The people made ill by these practices have to pay medical costs and the government has to spend money on police investigations and prosecution of the offenders. Furthermore, the people whose health has suffered work less efficiently, causing a decline in productivity. In international trade, those who pass off shoddy goods as quality merchandise risk losing the trust of their customers and foreign markets -- as well as the foreign currency obtained through those markets.

Ethical qualities also influence industrial output. If workers enjoy their work and are industrious, productivity will be high. On the other hand, if they are dishonest, disgruntled or lazy, this will have a negative effect on the quality of production and the amount of productivity.

When it comes to consumption, consumers in a society with vain and fickle values will prefer flashy and ostentatious products to high quality products which are not so flashy. In a more practically-minded society, where the social values do not tend toward showiness and extravagance, consumers will choose goods on the basis of their reliability. Obviously, the goods consumed in these two different societies will lead to different social and economic results.

Advertising stimulates economic activity, but often at an ethically unacceptable price. Advertising is bound up with popular values: advertisers must draw on common aspirations, prejudices and desires in order to produce advertisements that are appealing. Employing social psychology, advertising manipulates popular values for economic ends, and because of its repercussions on the popular mind, it has considerable ethical significance. The volume of advertising may cause an increase in materialism, and unskillful images or messages may harm public morality. The vast majority of ads imbue the public with a predilection for selfish indulgence; they condition us into being perfect consumers who have no higher purpose in life than to consume the products of modern industry. In the process, we are transformed into 'hungry ghosts,' striving to feed an everlasting craving, and society becomes a seething mass of conflicting interests.

Moreover, advertising adds to the price of the product itself. Thus people tend to buy unnecessary things at prices that are unnecessarily expensive. There is much wastage and extravagance. Things are used for a short while and then replaced, even though they are still in good condition. Advertising also caters to peoples' tendency to flaunt their possessions as a way of gaining social status. When snob-appeal is the main criterion, people buy unnecessarily expensive products without considering the quality. In extreme cases, people are so driven by the need to appear stylish that they cannot wait to save the money for the latest gadget or fashion -- they simply use their credit cards. Spending in excess of earnings can become a vicious cycle. A newer model or fashion is advertised and people plunge themselves deeper and deeper into debt trying to keep up. In this way, unethical advertising can lead people to financial ruin. It is ironic that, with the vast amount of 'information technology' available, most of it is used to generate 'misinformation' or delusion.

On the political plane, decisions have to be made regarding policy on advertising -- should there be any control, and if so, of what kind? How is one to achieve the proper balance between moral and economic concerns? Education is also involved. Ways may have to be found to teach people to be aware of how advertising works, to reflect on it, and to consider how much of it is to be believed. Good education should seek to make people more intelligent in making decisions about buying goods. The question of advertising demonstrates how activities prevalent in society may have to be considered from many perspectives, all of which are interrelated.

Taking a wider perspective, it can be seen that the free market system itself is ultimately based on a minimum of ethics. The freedom of the free market system may be lost through businesses using unscrupulous means of competition; the creation of a monopoly through influence is one common example, the use of thugs to assassinate a competitor a more unorthodox one. The violent elimination of rivals heralds the end of the free market system, although it is a method scarcely mentioned in the economics textbooks.

To be ethically sound, economic activity must take place in a way that is not harmful to the individual, society or the natural environment. In other words, economic activity should not cause problems for oneself, agitation in society or degeneration of the ecosystem, but rather enhance well-being in these three spheres. If ethical values were factored into economic analysis, a cheap but nourishing meal would certainly be accorded more value than a bottle of whiskey.

Thus, an economics inspired by Buddhism would strive to see and accept the truth of all things. It would cast a wider, more comprehensive eye on the question of ethics. Once ethics has been accepted as a legitimate subject for consideration, ethical questions then become factors to be studied within the whole causal process. But if no account is taken of ethical considerations, economics will be incapable of developing any understanding of the whole causal process, of which ethics forms an integral part.

Modern economics has been said to be the most scientific of all the social sciences. Indeed, priding themselves on their scientific methodology, economists take only measurable quantities into consideration. Some even assert that economics is purely a science of numbers, a matter of mathematical equations. In its efforts to be scientific, economics ignores all non-quantifiable, abstract values.

But by considering economic activity in isolation from other forms of human activity, modern economists have fallen into the narrow specialization characteristic of the industrial age. In the manner of specialists, economists try to eliminate all non-economic factors from their considerations of human activity and concentrate on a single perspective, that of their own discipline.

In recent years, critics of economics, even a number of economists themselves, have challenged this "objective" position and asserted that economics is the most value-dependent of all the social sciences. It may be asked how it is possible for economics to be free of values when, in fact, it is rooted in the human mind. The economic process begins with want, continues with choice, and ends with satisfaction, all of which are functions of mind. Abstract values are thus the beginning, the middle and the end of economics, and so it is impossible for economics to be value-free. Yet as it stands, many economists avoid any consideration of values, ethics, or mental qualities, despite the fact that these will always have a bearing on economic concerns. Economists' lack of ethical training and their ignorance of the workings of mental values and human desire is a major shortcoming which will prevent them from solving the problems it is their task to solve. If the world is to be saved from the ravages of overconsumption and overproduction, economists must come to an understanding of the importance of ethics to their field. Just as they might study ecology, they should also study ethics and the nature of human desire, and understand them thoroughly. Here is one area in which Buddhism can be of great help.

Go to Chapter Two

Footnote:

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[*] Small is Beautiful, Economics as if People Mattered, by E. F. Schumacher, first published by Blond and Briggs Ltd., London, 1973. [Back to text]